문헌 고찰 개념​

An evaluation of previous research on your topic.

• 문헌 고찰(Literature Review)은 내가 연구하는 주제와 관련된 기존 연구들을 평가하는 글이다.

문헌 고찰 목적​

"provides background information needed to understand your study
assures your readers that you are familiar with the important research that has been carried out in your area
establishes your study as one link in a chain of research that is developing and enlarging knowledge in your field"
(Weissberg & Buker 1990, p.41)

• 내 연구의 배경을 설명하고, 독자에게 내가 주요 연구를 충분히 파악하고 있다는 점, 그리고 내 연구가 기존 연구의 연장선상에 있음을 보여준다.

문헌 고찰 포함 내용​

Minimum: well-established research in the field; most recent relevant research.

• 문헌 고찰에는 반드시 이 분야에서 잘 알려진 주요 연구와 가장 최근의 관련 연구를 포함해야 한다.

문헌 고찰 구성​

• 필요에 따라 조합할 수 있다.

레퍼런스​

The REFERENCE system you follow will be that of one of the leading journals in your field: check with your lecturer or supervisor.

• 분야에서 영향력 있는 저널의 인용 방식을 따라야 하며, 확실하지 않으면 담당 교수나 슈퍼바이저에게 확인

인용​

• 정보에 초점을 둘지, 저자에 초점을 둘지에 따라 다르다.
• on the information: use name/number in parentheses.
  • It was demonstrated [2]
  • It was demonstrated (Williams, 2003)
• on the author: use acknowledging phrases
  • Williams (2003) demonstrated that...
  • Williams [2] demonstrated that...

길이​

Around 15-30% of the whole proposal

• 별도 기준이 없다면 15% - 30%
• 논문은 60%가 본인의 작업이어야 한다. 문헌 고찰이 논문의 40%를 초과하면 안 된다.

문헌 고찰에서 해야 할 일​

• 분야 내에서 중요하고 관련 있는 연구들을 파악하는 능력을 보여준다.
• 해당 연구들을 체계적으로 정리, 평가할 수 있음을 보여준다.
• 연구의 빈틈(gap) 을 파악하고, 내 연구가 그 부분을 채우려 한다는 점을 제시한다.

Big Data​

• Volume: describes the data size, up to PB
• Velocity: the speed of data generation and illustrates how fast the datasets are being produced.
• Variety: the complexity of datasets, with datasets including both structured and unstructured data.
• Veracity: The truthfulness or reliability of the data. large + reliable in order to achieve value in the analysis of it.
• Value: The worth in information that can be achieved by the processing and analysis of large datasets. It can be measured by an assessment of the other qualities of big data.

ML​

• Supervised learning: uses the old data to learn the relationship between the inputs and outputs, which will be able to predict the outcomes.
  • Decision Trees, Neural Networks, SVM, Random Forests.
• Unsupervised learning: try to make sense of the data without labelled responses by representing it in another form.
  • Clustering, association rule mining, Neural Networks.

AI​

• reasoning
• knowledge representation
• planning
• learning
• natural language processing
• perception
• pattern recognition

Data Science (Second Edition), Chapter 1 - Introduction Pages 1-18, by Vijay Kotu, Bala Deshpande, 2019,

KNIME​

Vocabulary & Expressions​

Term/Expression	Definition	Simpler Paraphrase	Meaning
perceive	To become aware of something through the senses	To notice or become aware of	인식하다
crude	In a raw or unrefined state; lacking sophistication	Basic or rough; not polished	조잡한, 대충만든
flesh out	To add more details or substance to an idea or plan	To develop or expand an idea with more information	구체화하다, 자세히 설명하다
infrared	Relating to electromagnetic radiation with wavelengths longer than visible light	A type of light that is not visible to the human eye, often used in technology	적외선의
In practice	In reality or in actual use, as opposed to theory	How something works in real life, not just in theory	실제로, 실제 사용에서
percept	A mental impression or understanding formed by the senses	An idea or understanding formed by what we see, hear, etc.	지각, 인식
percept sequence	The complete history of everything the agent has ever perceived	The full record of all the things an agent has noticed or experienced	지각 순서, 인식의 연속
tabulate	To arrange data in a table format for easier analysis	To organize information into a table	표로 정리하다
artifact	An object made or used by humans, often of historical or cultural interest	A human-made object, especially one of historical or cultural significance	인공물, 유물
consequentialism	An ethical theory that judges actions by their outcomes or consequences	A moral philosophy that evaluates actions based on their results	결과주의
desirability	The quality of being desirable or wanted	How much something is wanted or valued	바람직함, 선호도
knotty	Complex and difficult to solve or understand	Complicated and challenging	복잡한, 어려운
criterion	A standard or principle by which something is judged or decided	A rule or standard used to evaluate something	기준, 표준
prior	Existing or occurring before something else	Something that comes before or is earlier in time	이전의, 선행하는
oscillate	To move back and forth in a regular rhythm; to vary between two points	To swing or fluctuate between two states or values	진동하다, 오락가락하다
omniscience	The state of having complete or unlimited knowledge	The ability to know everything	전지전능, 모든 것을 아는 상태
pantomime	A form of theatrical performance using gestures and body movements without spoken words	A performance that tells a story through actions and expressions, not speech	무언극, 몸짓극
wasp	A type of stinging insect known for its slender body and aggressive behavior	A flying insect that can sting, often yellow and black	말벌
entomologist	A scientist who studies insects	An expert in the study of insects	곤충학자
innate	Existing naturally or as part of something; not learned or acquired	Something that is inborn or inherent	타고난, 선천적인
To the extent	As far as something is true or applicable	To the degree that something is relevant or valid	~의 범위 내에서, ~에 한해서, ~한 정도까지는
reflex	An automatic, involuntary response to a stimulus	A quick, instinctive reaction to something	반사 작용, 반사 신경
acronymically	In a way that uses the first letters of words to form an abbreviation	Using the initial letters of words to create a shorter form	약어로, 두문자어로
aspire	To have a strong desire or ambition to achieve something	To aim for or seek to achieve a goal	열망하다, 갈망하다
disturbance	An interruption or disruption of normal activity or state	A disturbance is something that disrupts or interrupts	방해, 소란
alley	A narrow passageway between buildings or walls	A small street or path, often for pedestrians	골목, 좁은 길
speedometer	An instrument that measures the speed of a vehicle	A device that shows how fast a vehicle is going	속도계
accelerometer	An instrument that measures acceleration or changes in speed	A device that detects how quickly something speeds up or slows down	가속도계
persistent	Continuing firmly or obstinately in a course of action despite difficulty or opposition	Continuing to exist or endure over a long period	지속적인, 끈질긴
embody	To give tangible or visible form to an idea, quality, or feeling	To represent or express something in a physical form	구체화하다, 구현하다
explicitly	In a clear and detailed manner, leaving no room for confusion	Clearly stated or shown, without ambiguity	명확하게, 분명히
daunting	Intimidating or discouraging; causing one to lose confidence	Making someone feel less confident or more afraid	벅찬, 위협적인, 겁먹게 하는

Agents​

• Simple reflex agents
• Model-based reflex agents
• Goal-based agents
• Utility-based agents

시리즈​

• 1. 호주 학생비자 주의사항
• 2. 호주 학생 보험 및 한국 보험, 연금 연기
• 3. 호주 결혼 준비
• 4. 호주 집 구하기

집 구성​

구분	영어	내용
마스터 룸	Master room	한국 안방, 화장실이 딸려있어 다른 방에 비해 비싼 편이고 보통 2~4명까지 들어감
세컨드 룸	Second room	한국 작은방, 2~3명 정도 들어감
리빙 룸	Living room	거실에서 파티션을 치고 생활하는 것, 가격이 저렴하지만 불편함이 많음.
선 룸	Sun room	베란다, 베란다여서 저렴할 것 같지만 독방으로 생각하는 사람들도 있어 의외로 가격이 비쌈
본드 피	Bond fee	한국 월세 보증금, 호주는 주당 방비를 내기 때문에 처음 들어갈 때 4주 정도의 본드 피를 내고 나올 때 돌려받음
풀리 퍼니시드	Fully furnished	풀 옵션(full option), 침대, 책상, 옷장 등의 가구가 갖춰진 방
어드밴스드 렌트	Advanced rent	방값 선불

Software Engineering​

SDLC​

SW Development Methodologies​

Waterfall​

• Pros
  • Simple & easy: each phase has specific deliverables
  • Clear & set milestones
  • Fixed requirements
  • Works well for small projects with specific set of requirements
  • Determine the schedule early
  • Clear structure
• Cons
  • Working sw produced only at the end
  • High uncertainty of sw quality and functionality
  • Delayed testing, delays sw bugs discovery
  • After completion, no formal way to change the requirements
  • Fix working model, difficult to implement for complex projects

Agile​

• Iterative cyclical progression of the SDLC
  • Repetitive structure based on iterations (sprints)
  • 2 ~ 4 weeks, SDLC repeats
  • Each release has 3 or more iterations
  • Working prototype is produced at the end of each iteration
  • Prototype is for QA and used as input for next iteration
  • Multiple releases
• Pros
  • Innovation through team collaboration
  • Time to market
  • Continuous testing
  • Risk reduction, finding sw bugs early
  • Customer feedback loop
  • Flexibility to change requirements
  • Automates most of the SDLC === DevOps approach
• Cons
  • Lack of long-term planning
  • Cost estimation is difficult
  • Limited documentation
  • No finite end
  • Difficult to see the end result due due to cyclic nature of agile

SW Development Paradigms​

Procedural Programming​

• Top-down decomposition: Each sub-problem is typically implemented as a function or procedure
• Root represents the main program
• Leaves denote individual procedures or functions

Object-Oriented Programming​

• Abstraction: The process of hiding unnecessary details
• Encapsulation: Restricts the direct access to components of an object, while using methods to access and modify the data
• Inheritance: The process of creating sub-class
• Polymorphism: Allows for the creation, use, and storage of multiple objects that inherit from the same parent class

Requirements Analysis​

Instructions provided by the stakeholder describe a target system

• system properties, attributes and how a system should behave
• Decomposed into Functional requirements / Non-functional requirements

Requirements Validation​

• Compliance
• Correctness
• Completeness
• Consistency
• Usability

Criteria	Description	Satisfactory Score (0-5)	Recommendations
Compliance	Degree to which the requirements meet with industry standards and regulations	0	-
Correctness	Degree to which the requirements is correct in terms of spelling, accuracy, grammatically.	0	-
Completeness	Degree to which the functional requirements match the intended software behavior	0	-
Consistency	Degree to which the requirements can be mapped to use cases	0	-
Expandability	Degree to which the requirements can be modified and improved to meet the project objectives	0	-

Use Case​

an actor wants the system to, and captures functional requirements

• always started by an actor, always written from the perspective of the actor
• a series of actions that a user must initiate to carry out some useful work and to achieve a goal
  • preconditions -> main flow -> alternative flow -> postconditions
• reflects all the possible events in the system
• complete set of use cases describes all the possible ways the system will behave and defines all the requirements

Use Case Backlog Template​

ID	Use Case Title	Actor(s)	Goal/Description	Preconditions	Postconditions	Priority	Status	Notes
UC-001	User Login	User	Allow users to log in to the system	User must have an account	User is logged in	High	Open	-
UC-002	View Profile	User	Allow users to view their profile information	User must be logged in	User profile is displayed	Medium	Open	-

User Stories​

• Planned to be delivered in a single iteration, some user stories may span multiple iterations
• Single requirement expressed from developer's perspective
• Describes a functional or non-functional requirement

• As a student
• I want to submit assignments online
• so that I can receive feedback from my instructor.

ID	User Story	Acceptance Criteria	Priority	Status	Story Points	Notes
US-001	As a student, I want to submit assignments online so that I can receive feedback from my instructor.	- User can upload assignment files - User receives confirmation of submission - Instructor can view submitted assignments	High	Open	5	-
US-002	As a student, I want to view my grades online so that I can track my academic progress.	- User can view grades for each assignment - User can see overall course grade - Grades are updated in real-time	Medium	Open	3	-

UML​

• Actors: Entity that performs actions in the system
• Use Cases: Oval representation inside the system boundary of a functional requirement
• System Boundary: Square representation of the system scope
• Relationships
  • Association: Between an actor and a use case
  • Include: Between use cases, The included use case is always necessary for the completion of the activating use case.
  • Extend: Between use cases, The extension use case is activated occasionally at specific extension point.
  • Generalization/Inheritance: Between use cases, they achieve the same goal but in different ways.

Use Case Model​

• System boundary: Defines the scope of the system
• Generalization: Describes the shared parts in a parent use case, then specializes in child use cases
  • Inherit features from their parent use case
  • Add new features
  • Change inherited features
• Short, simple use cases on the core functionality may be completed within one iteration.
• Keep use cases short and simple
• Focus on what, not the how
• Avoid functional decomposition

UML Use Case Model​

• CRUD
  • Create a record
  • Retrieve the record given a key
  • Update the record with new data and store it
  • Delete a record
• Each is a separate goal, possibly carried by a different person with a different security level.

에이전트와 환경의 상호작용​

환경​

• Static environment: crossword puzzle
• Semi-dynamic environment: Chess
• Dynamic environment: self-driving car

1. 연구문제 정의 및 역할​

연구문제는 사회·행동과학에서 분석의 출발점이자 글쓰기의 핵심 조직 원리이며 학문적 소통의 중심 주제이며, 다른 연구 주제로의 확장 기반이 된다.

• 새로운 지식과 이해 도출
• 실용적 해결책 또는 정책 제안
• 인간 조건 개선
• 실천적 방법론 개발

2. 연구문제 유형과 예시 (기후변화 주제 기반)​

유형	설명	기후 변화 예시
Action	사회 변화 유도 목적	가뭄 지역 식량 운송 개선
Applied	실용적 해결 목표	해수면 상승 → 기반시설 개선
Causal	인과관계 분석	빙하 감소 → 농업 ↓ → 경제 ↓
Developmental	개념 확산/수용 과정 분석	재생에너지 수용 인식 변화
Exploratory	미지 영역 탐색	산불 연기 → 노인 건강 영향 조사
Predictive	미래 예측	북극 해빙 → 항로 개방 대응 시나리오
Theoretical	개념적 이론 확장	장소애착 이론을 통한 메시지 전략

3. 연구문제 선정 절차​

A. 주제를 제공받는 경우​

1. 핵심 개념 및 용어 도출
2. 배경문헌 검토 (ProQuest, JSTOR 등)
3. 비판적 시각 형성 (찬반 근거 확보)
4. 아웃라인 구성

B. 주제 리스트에서 선택하는 경우​

• “쉬운 주제”보다 흥미, 전공, 개인적 의미 고려
• 위와 같은 절차 적용

C. 자유 주제 설정​

1. “무엇을 이해하고 싶은가?”라는 질문에서 시작
2. 아이디어 수집 전략
   • 강의자료, 시사 뉴스, SNS, 과거 과제 등
3. 주제를 연구문제로 구체화 후 위 절차 적용

4. 문헌 활용 전략​

활용 방식	설명
비판적 활용	기존 주장의 약점을 반박하거나 대안 제시
아이디어 확장	타인의 관점으로 본인 주장을 보완
역사적 맥락 제공	주제의 시간적 변화나 발전 과정을 조망
학제 간 통찰 확보	사회학, 정치학 등 다양한 관점 비교 분석

5. 연구문제 vs 논제 (Thesis Statement)​

구분	연구문제	논제 (Thesis)
목적	해결해야 할 문제 제시	문제에 대한 명확한 입장 표명
문서 위치	서론 초반	서론 마지막 문단
성격	측정 가능한 현상 기술	분석, 주장, 평가 등 입장 제시
관계	논제의 기반이 됨	연구문제 해석 결과로 도출됨

6. 실전 리서치 팁​

• Google Scholar의 "Cited by" 기능으로 후속 연구 추적
• 동의어 및 관련 키워드로 검색 확장
• 참고문헌 추적: 자주 인용된 자료는 핵심 이론일 가능성 높음
• EndNote, RefWorks로 문헌 정리
• 아웃라인 작성 시 논리적 공백이 생기면 추가 조사 필요

7. 참고용 리서치 도구 및 플랫폼​

• CQ Researcher – 이슈 중심의 정책 보고서 제공
• Opposing Viewpoints In Context – 사회 문제에 대한 다양한 관점
• Policy Commons – 글로벌 정책 데이터베이스
• JSTOR – 학술지 기반의 과거 연구 자료
• New York Times Topics – 주요 시사 이슈 정리 및 자료

8. 개선 제안 요약​

항목	제안 내용
유형 비교 도식화	7가지 유형을 목적/적용성과 함께 도식화
검색 예시 보강	고급 검색식 예시 추가 (ex. “EU AND terrorism AND credibility”)
논제 예시 확장	분석형, 설명형, 주장형 등 다양한 논제 샘플 제시
실패 사례 제시	과도하게 좁은 주제나 불명확한 문제 사례 소개
전체 개요 문단 추가	전체 문서 요약용 300자 내외 개요 삽입 (블로그/논문 개요에 활용 가능)

Vocabulary & Expressions​

Term/Expression	Definition	Simpler Paraphrase	Meaning
rationality	The quality of being based on reason or logic	Logical thinking	합리성
merely	Just; Only	only	단지
concede	To admit something is true after denying it	admit	인정하다
empirical	Based on observation or experience rather than theory	observational	경험적인
disparage	To regard or represent as being of little worth	belittle	폄하하다
extrapolate	To extend the application of a method or conclusion to an unknown situation by assuming existing trends will continue	infer	추론하다
devote sth to sth/so	To give one's time, effort, or resources to a particular task or purpose	dedicate	헌신하다
precise	Marked by exactness and accuracy of expression or detail	exact	정확한
content	Pleased and satisfied with situation	satisfied	만족한
subject	A person or thing being studied or experimented on	participant	피실험자
encyclopedia	A book or set of books giving information on many subjects or on many aspects of one subject	reference book	백과사전
incorporate	To include or integrate a part into the whole	include	포함하다
ascertain	To find out or learn with certainty	discover	확인하다
irrefutable	Impossible to deny or disprove	undeniable	반박할 수 없는
syllogism	A form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two given or assumed propositions (premises)	logical argument	삼단논법
logician	A person skilled in the principles of reasoning	reasoner	논리학자
seldom	Almost never	rarely	드물게
perceptual information	Information that is derived from the senses and interpreted by the brain	sensory information	지각 정보
deduce	to reach an answer or a decision by thinking carefully about the known facts	infer	추론하다
deliberation	Long and careful consideration or discussion	careful thought	심사숙고
amenable	Open and responsive to suggestion; easily persuaded or controlled	open to suggestion	적합한, 순종적인
pervasive	Spreading widely throughout an area or a group of people	widespread	만연한
a priori	Knowledge or justification that is independent of experience	independent of experience	선험적인
viable	Capable of working successfully; feasible	feasible	실행 가능한
sole	Being the only one of its kind; unique	only	유일한
conjecture	An opinion or conclusion formed on the basis of incomplete information	guess	추측
be indicative of	To be a sign or indication of something	suggest	~을 나타내다, 잘 보여주다
precursor	A person or thing that comes before another of the same kind; a forerunner	predecessor	전신
axiom	A statement or proposition that is regarded as being self-evidently true	self-evident truth	공리
suffice	To be enough or adequate	be enough	충분하다
deductive	Based on reasoning from the general to the specific	logical reasoning	연역적인
coextensive	Reach the same extent or scope	of the same extent	동등한 범위의
intractability	The quality of being difficult to manage or control	unmanageable	다루기 어려움, 난해함
appreciation	Recognition and enjoyment of the good qualities of someone or something	recognition	감상, 인식
dampened	Made less intense or strong	weakened	약화된
confined	Restricted in area or scope; limited	restricted	제한된
grip	A firm hold or control over something	control	통제, 지배
animosity	Strong hostility	hostility	적대감
dwindle	To diminish gradually in size, amount, or strength	decrease	줄어들다
resurgence	An increase or revival after a period of little activity, popularity, or occurrence	revival	부활
spectroscopy	The study of the interaction between matter and electromagnetic radiation	study of light-matter interaction	분광학
assure	To tell someone something positively to dispel any doubts	guarantee	보장하다
reinstate	To restore to a previous position or condition	restore	복원하다
extravagant	Lacking restraint in spending money or using resources	wasteful	사치스러운
axiomatic	Self-evident or unquestionable	self-evident	자명한
brittleness	The quality of being easily broken or damaged	fragility	취약성
rebellion	An act of violent or open resistance to an established government or ruler	uprising	반란
reunification	The process of reuniting or bringing together again	reunification	재통일
resurgence	An increase or revival after a period of little activity, popularity, or occurrence	revival	부활
speculation	The forming of a theory or conjecture without firm evidence	guesswork	추측
convene	To come together or assemble, especially for a meeting	gather	모이다
juncture	A point in time, especially one made critical by a concurrence of circumstances	critical point	중대한 시점
hinder	To create difficulties for someone or something, resulting in a delay or obstruction	obstruct	방해하다
sentiment	A view or opinion that is held or expressed	opinion	감정, 의견
reportedly	According to what some say; allegedly	allegedly	전해진 바에 의하면
prostate	A gland in the male reproductive system that produces seminal fluid	gland	전립선
maneuver	To move skillfully or carefully	navigate	조종하다
legged locomotion	Movement using legs, such as walking or running	walking	다리로 걷기
upended	Turned upside down or inside out	overturned	뒤집힌
adequate	Satisfactory or acceptable in quality or quantity	sufficient	충분한
synthesis	The combination of components or elements to form a connected whole	combination	합성
metastatic	Relating to the spread of disease from one organ or part to another not directly connected with it	spreading	전이성의
ophthalmic	Relating to the eye	eye-related	안과의
facilitate	To make an action or process easy or easier	ease	용이하게 하다

Task1​

The line graph below shows the percentage of households with internet access in three countries (Canada, India, and Nigeria) from 2015 to 2020.

The line graph illustrates the proportion of households with internet access in Canada, India, and Nigeria from 2015 to 2020. Overall, all three countries experienced an upward trend in internet access, with Canada maintaining the highest levels, while Nigeria had the lowest throughout the period.

In 2015, Canada had the highest percentage of households with internet access at 80%, rising steadily to 90% by 2020. India started at 20% in 2015 and saw a consistent increase, reaching 45% by 2020. Nigeria, with the lowest initial access at 10%, grew to 25% over the same period.

Canada's internet penetration was significantly higher than that of India and Nigeria, reflecting its advanced infrastructure. India's growth rate was notable, doubling its percentage over five years, indicating rapid digital expansion. Nigeria, while showing progress, remained considerably behind, likely due to economic and infrastructural constraints. These trends highlight disparities in technological development across the countries, with Canada leading and Nigeria lagging.

Task2​

The increasing use of social media among young people has raised concerns about its impact on mental health. What are the main causes of this issue, and what measures can be taken to address it?

The growing prevalence of social media among young people has sparked concerns about its detrimental effects on mental health. This essay will explore the primary causes of this issue and propose effective solutions to mitigate its impact.

One major cause is the pressure to conform to idealized online personas. Social media platforms often showcase curated lifestyles, leading to comparison and feelings of inadequacy among young users. For instance, exposure to influencers' polished images can trigger low self-esteem or anxiety. Additionally, excessive screen time, particularly late at night, disrupts sleep patterns, exacerbating stress and metal fatigue. Cyberbullying is another significant factor, as negative comments or harassment online can profoundly affect emotional well-being, especially among adolescents.

To address these issues, educational initiatives should be implemented to promote digital literacy. Schools could teach young people to critically evaluate social media content and recognize its artificial nature, reducing the urge to compare. For example, programs in Australia have successfully integrated media literacy into curricula, fostering healthier online habits. Governments and platforms should also enforce stricter anti-cyberbullying measures, such as real-time moderation and reporting systems. Furthermore, parents and schools can encourage balanced screen time by promoting offline activities, such as sports or hobbies, to enhance mental resilience.

In conclusion, social media's impact on young people's mental health stems from comparison, excessive use, and cyberbullying. By fostering digital literacy, strengthening platform regulations, and encouraging offline engagement, societies can alleviate these effects, ensuring young people maintain healthier relationships with social media.

Vocabulary & Expressions​

Term/Expression	Definition	Simpler Paraphrase
prominence	The state of being important or noticeable	Importance
conform	To comply with rules or standards	Follow
detrimental	Causing harm or damage	Harmful
exacerbating	Making a problem or situation worse	Worsening
resilience	The ability to recover quickly from difficulties	Strength
alleviate	To make something less severe or intense	Reduce
penetration	The extent to which something is adopted or spread	Spread
disparities	Significant differences or inequalities	Gaps

A rational agent is one that acts so as to achieve the best outcome or, when there is uncertainty, the best expected outcome

The inception of artificial intelligence (1943–1956)​

• Warren McCulloch와 Walter Pitts (1943): 인공 신경망(artificial neuron model)을 제안.
• Alan Turing (1950): "Computing Machinery and Intelligence" 논문에서 튜링 테스트(Turing Test)라는 개념을 제안.
• John McCarthy, Marvin Minsky, Nathaniel Rochester, Claude Shannon이 1956년 Dartmouth workshop을 개최, 여기서 "artificial intelligence"라는 용어가 공식적으로 등장.
• 주요 성과
  • Logic Theorist (Newell & Simon): 최초의 ‘논리 추론’ 프로그램.
  • General Problem Solver (GPS): 범용 문제 해결 시스템.

Early enthusiasm, great expectations (1952–1969)​

• AI 연구자들은 symbolic reasoning과 search를 이용해 문제를 해결하려 시도.
• Perceptron(Rosenblatt, 1957): 초기 신경망 모델로, 패턴 인식에 사용.
• 대표적인 시스템
  • Samuel의 체커 프로그램: 컴퓨터가 스스로 학습해서 체커를 둘 수 있도록 설계.
  • ELIZA: 자연어 처리를 흉내 낸 최초의 대화형 프로그램.

A dose of reality (1966–1973)​

• 자동 번역(Machine Translation)의 한계가 드러남: 1966년 ALPAC 보고서가 정부 자금 축소로 이어짐.
• Perceptron의 한계(Minsky & Papert, 1969): XOR 문제 등, 단층 신경망으로는 복잡한 문제를 해결할 수 없다는 것을 증명.
• 연구의 중심이 "toy domains"(작은 문제 영역)로 한정.

Expert systems (1969–1986)​

• Weak methods(약한 방법): 범용성은 있으나 복잡한 문제엔 비효율적.
• Domain-specific knowledge(도메인 특화 지식): 전문가의 경험을 수천 개의 규칙으로 시스템에 구현.
• DENDRAL: 질량 분석 데이터를 바탕으로 분자 구조를 추론하는 시스템. Knowledge-intensive system의 대표 사례.
• MYCIN: 450여 개의 규칙로 혈액 감염을 진단. certainty factors(불확실성 계산) 개념 도입.
• R1(XCON): Digital Equipment Corporation의 컴퓨터 시스템 주문을 자동으로 구성.
• 이 시기 Expert system의 상업적 성공: 대기업들이 적극 도입.
• Frame, Semantic Networks, Description Logics 등 다양한 representation and reasoning tools의 등장.
• Prolog와 PLANNER와 같은 논리 프로그래밍 언어의 활용.
• "Fifth Generation" project(일본, 1981): 병렬형 인공지능 컴퓨터 연구 대형 프로젝트(성공적 성과는 제한적).
• 미국, 유럽도 대응 프로젝트 진행.

The return of neural networks and machine learning (1986–present)​

• Back-propagation 알고리즘이 재발견되며 심층 신경망(deep neural networks)의 부흥이 시작됨.
• Big Data와 컴퓨팅 파워의 증가로 deep learning이 현실의 다양한 문제를 해결하는 데 쓰이기 시작.
• 2010년대 Yann LeCun, Geoffrey Hinton, Yoshua Bengio 등이 딥러닝 혁신을 주도.